Also focused a lot on not the nuclear genome that comes from the moms and dads, but the tiny part of the genome outside the cell nuclei that comes only from the mother, the mitochondrial genome because there are many, many copies of it per cell, so a biggerchance that a little bit survives.
individual neutrons are not so you turn both protons and neutrons into helium nuclei that's two neutrons and two protons and you have a whole bunch of free protons that didn't get capturedbecause there were more protons around so given what we know about nuclear physics the rate of nuclear fusion
The protons and neutrons form. The nuclei form. The atoms come about, and so on, and so forth. The first stars and the nucleus after about 200 million years.
So there's a little timer which runs along the .. The nuclei have to be spherical and not linear.
Diagnostic tools also benefiting from synthetic biology in that we were able to rapidly make new forms of diagnostics, both nucleic acid-based and protein-based, like antibodies. And moving forward, I think we're just going to get more experience using
caused by six hours of sleep. DNA nucleic alphabet that spells out your daily health narrative.
call the weak nuclear force, which is responsible for some types of radioactivity. And since most people don't play around with nuclei , and most people don't play around with radioactivity, they don't know what that is. But by the '30s, scientists had done enough experiments, done enough theorizing to say that there were these four forces, and that was already a triumph. I mean, we, in our goal for a theory of everything, we'd like to think that there is one force, which is what we're talking
taking the most common elements in the universe: hydrogen and lightweight isotopes of hydrogen and helium, and fusing those together to make heavier elements. In that process, as you combine atomic nuclei and form heavier nuclei , those nuclei are slightly lighter than the sum of the parts. And that comes from a lot of the details of quantum mechanics and how those fundamental particles combine and interact.
- So in fusion, you take these lightweight isotopes like hydrogen and deuterium, and as you combine them and get them closer and closer together, some really interesting fundamental physics happens. So first these atomic nuclei are charged. They have an electric these atomic nuclei are charged. They have an electric charge, and they like charges repel. And I think everybody is familiar with that, where you take two positive charges, and you try to push them together, and the electromagnetic force between them repels them. So
It gets some from-- and that isn't counted here. We split heavy nuclei , usually uranium but also plutonium-- in fact, plutonium supplies about a third of the energy near the end of the fuel
The first is the amygdala. This deep set of nuclei in the brain that help us with emotional attention as well as learning about the relative safety and danger of our environments.
And two down quarks and an up quark is a neutron. You can build the nuclei with the electrons. You can have the atoms.
Right? Neutrons and protons make up atomic nuclei . And for a heavy nuclei , certainly there-- average more neutrons there are protons. So the number one dominant particle in your body is a neutron, OK?
The first planets were here. The first atomic nuclei when the universe was around a second old, that's when the first atoms began forming. And we can trace the history of the universe quantitatively and mathematically all the way back to about 10 to the minus 35 seconds.
So you barely see there are muscle fibers there. You see no cell nuclei . There's no DNA preserved But it's not always that depressing to look at these things.
And one of the mummies there, this 2,400-year-old child, you could in the basal levels of the skin see some things that looked like cell nuclei . You could actually stain it and show DNA is there, and go on to extract the DNA, replicate it in bacteria, and show that some of it came from human.
and batteries. You could do everything. All this is the first two terms, the first term is just the kinetic energy of electrons, the second is kinetic energy of nuclei . The third term is the interaction between the electrons and the nuclei . And the fourth and fifth terms are the interactions between the electrons respectively and nuclei respectively. If you have that, you have everything in a solid: whether it's a protein, protein in a leaf that's doing catalysis or whether
energy of nuclei . The third term is the interaction between the electrons and the nuclei . And the fourth and fifth terms are the interactions between the electrons respectively and nuclei respectively. If you have that, you have everything in a solid: whether it's a protein, protein in a leaf that's doing catalysis or whether it's an Ebola virus, you know everything about that material.
So, here's what I claim. I claim that every time two of those come together, there's a chance for a water molecule to leave and produce what is called an ester bond. That's what holds nucleic acids together. Ester bonds. Very simple. You have a water molecule, make a chemical bond, and that if you make it long enough, you make a DNA molecule,
And when the neutrons gets in a nucleus, it no longer as-- its mass is too small to decay into these particles. So neutrons are only stable in nuclei by that accident that the fact that the neutron-proton mass difference is so small, that when it falls into a nucleus, it no longer has enough energy to decay.
enough all the neutrons would have decayed away but instead the universe cooled down to the point where some of those neutrons could undergo nuclear fusion with the protons then the atomic nuclei becom stable even though the individual neutrons are not so you turn both protons and neutrons into helium
alive you can argue about that but viroids at least aren't what are they a virus is a string of nucleic acid with Attitude it just happens to have a shape that gives it the competence to provoke its own
Iridium was chosen because it's the second densest element on Earth. And that means that there are a lot of nuclei packed in a small space, which increases the odds that the protons will hit something. But when one of these protons hits an iridium nucleus, it doesn't bounce off like you'd expect in most collisions.
If you keep putting in energy, then you can put in so much energy that another quark-antiquark pair will be created. Thus, these nuclei create strong electric fields.
- They have a high number of protons in their nuclei , which attract orbiting electrons more strongly.
released. And the actual reactions, I think, is a lot more interesting than simply it's a little bit lighter, and therefore, energy is released. But that's the fundamental process in fusion as you're bringing those lightweight atomic nuclei , those isotopes together. Fission is the exact opposite, where you're taking the heaviest elements in the universe: uranium, plutonium, things that are so heavy and have so many internal protons and neutrons and electrons, that they're barely held together at all. They're fundamentally unstable or
We dig up uranium, plutonium out of the ground. And in fact, most plutonium we make from uranium, and we can talk about how to enrich uranium if we want to go down that road. But that's how we get those molecules and nuclei . For fusion materials, hydrogenic species, or hydrogens are primordial in the universe. Also, only the most common things that are in primordial in the universe. Also only the most common things the universe. The suns and stars are made up of hydrogens and heliums, and so the vast
crack open and break apart, they release heat, that the component parts of those are actually quite hot. And so not only are the component parts that the uranium breaks into, and it's a whole spectrum of different atoms and atomic nuclei , and it's a whole spectrum of different atoms and atomic nuclei , are hot, but it also releases neutrons. are hot, but it also releases neutrons. It also releases more of these uncharged particles.
like those master clock cells within the suprachiasmatic nuclei , has the capacity to generate a 24-hour oscillation.
That's why we don't see it on human scales. It only works for-- on the scale of nuclei . So it's very short-range.
or understanding the quantum mechanics of an atomic nuclei , could have incredible, useful and also dangerous consequences.
It creates a bunch of the aerosol that generates cloud condensation nuclei .
So even the very nook and cranny of your DNA nucleic alphabet that spells out your daily health narrative
and how those fundamental particles combine and interact. We also talk about the strong nuclear force that holds the atomic nuclei together as one of the fundamental forces involved in fusion. But that mass defect, E=MC², we know from Einstein, is also energy. And so, in that process, a tremendous amount of energy is
electromagnetic force, they can still come close enough that another force comes into play, which is the strong force. And then once you get within a very close distance on the order of the scale of those nuclei themselves, of those atomic nuclei . So the tiniest thing you could imagine, and probably way smaller than that, these particles then are attracted to each other and they combine and they fuse together. At that point, you create heavier atomic nuclei that have a
And just above, there's the suprachiasmatic nuclei .
And then they also have-- a large fraction of these galaxies have active galactic nuclei quasars, supermassive black holes accreting like crazy.
But it should disturb you, because most of the particles in your body are neutrons. Right? Neutrons and protons make up atomic nuclei . And for a heavy nuclei , certainly there-- average more neutrons there are protons.
When you shine light on a molecule, its electric field tugs on the electrons and nuclei .
But cobalt 60 is also radioactive. So every once in a while, a neutron inside one of its nuclei decays into a proton, releasing an electron and antineutrino, and leaving a nickel 60 atom behind.
And at a stroke, quantum mechanics explained the nature of matter all the way from atomic nuclei right up to the structure of stars.
OK, again, what's this got to do with anything? that power the sun, as well as the existence of heavy nuclei .
Plasma is any state of matter in which electrons have been torn apart and separated from the nuclei .
These people that were doing things like splitting atoms in their garages, and fusing atomic nuclei in their basement, and building particle accelerators,
So this little alien-looking creature in here, that's a subcortical nuclei and part of the basal ganglia circuit.
So this little alien looking creature in here, that's a subcortical nuclei and part of the basal ganglia circuit.
But it vaporizes it, but you've still got this plasma of these radioactive nuclei , which are continuing to decay.
You see the muscle fibers. You see these black dots, which are the cell nuclei , where the genome is stored. And this is a muscle from a 2,000-year-old mummy, much like the one we looked at there.
You could actually stain it and show DNA is there, and go on to extract the DNA, replicate it in bacteria, and show that some of it came from human. So in hindsight, I really believe this microscopy that the cell nuclei here contain DNA that's for sure DNA from that mummy. The DNA I replicated and published is for sure a contamination.
was a nuclear reactor it was a fusion reactor at very very early times the temperature was so high that you couldn't have an atomic nucleus you couldn't stick together protons and neutrons they would smash into other nuclei and they would break apart but the universe is expanding and cooling so what you do is you start at 1 second after the big bang with free protons and